Sayang aja kalo nggak di posting, tapi jangan disalah gunain ya, cinta.
Independent Task
Sociolinguistics
Arranged by:
Ni Kadek Yulianingsih
1313042054
English Department
Teacher Training And Education Faculty
Lampung University
Bandar Lampung
2015
PREFACE
Praise be to Almighty God for the blessings and mercy to the author that
this paper can be completed on time. This paper contains about everything that the author
have learned
to improve the author’s knowledge about sociolinguistics. Author also says thanks to the Lecture, friends, and of course to the internet
that have helped
in writing this independent task. Author thinks that this paper is not
good enough and still has many mistakes so the author hopes constructive
criticism and suggestion from all.
And the last, the author
hope this paper can be useful for all of the readers.
Bandar
Lampung, August 22th
2015
The Author
1st
week
Friday, March 6th,
2015
Dear
diary…
This
is the first week to me to learn about sociolinguistics. Seeing the word
‘sociolinguistics’ we know that it relates to society and language. First of
all I need to know what language is and what the function of language in
society. This is what I learned from internet.
Language
is a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice
sounds, gestures, or written symbols. According to Roman Jakobson there are six
functions of language:
The Referential Function
corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or
mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can
consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words. For example: The autumn leaves have all fallen now.
The Expressive
(alternatively called "emotive" or "affective") Function relates to the Addresser
(sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that
do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information
about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state. For example: Wow, what a
view!
The Conative Function
engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives
and imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"
The Poetic Function
focuses on "the message for its own sake" (the code itself, and how
it is used) and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.
The Phatic Function
is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the
Contact/Channel factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and
casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers. It also
provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the communication channel:
"Hello?", "Ok?", "Bye"...
The Metalingual
(alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") Function is the use of language (what
Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself. (All this
article is an example of metalinguistic Function).
That’s
all for today, dear. See you…
2nd week
Friday, March 13th, 2015
Dear
diary…
The
second week I have to know what the meaning of sociolinguistics is. This is
what I have learned from internet about what sociolinguistics is.
Sociolinguistics
is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,
including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is
used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from
sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of
the society on the language, while the sociology of language focuses on
language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics can help us understand why
we speak differently in various social contexts, and help uncover the social
relationships in a community.
For
example, we probably wouldn't speak the same to our boss at work as we would
our friends, or speak to strangers as we would to our family.
That’s
all for today, dear. See you…
3rd week
Sunday, March 20th, 2015
Dear diary…
Today
I learn about the relationship between language and society. This is what I
learn from internet.
The
relationship between language and society is deeply rooted. Language performs various functions in the
society and the society does the same way. If one will not exist, the other one
will be affected.
Language
is the primary tool for communication purposes, for establishing peace and
order in our society, for showing authority and power, and for attaining goals
and objectives. But, it can also destruct the society if it will use
inappropriately. It must follow the conformity governing the society to avoid
conflicts and to meet the boundary of individual differences.
Society however
controls our language by giving us preferences as what are acceptable and not,
because each one of us has our own perception or point of view. A group of
people may accept our language, but for others, it could be kind of offence or
insult. We must know how, when and where to say it and for what purpose.
Social changes produce changes in
language. This affects values in ways that have not been
accurately understood. Language incorporates social values. However, social
values are only the same as linguistic values when the society is a stable and
unchanging one. Once society starts changing, then language change produces
special effects.
See
you in the next week, dear….
4th week
Sunday, March 27th, 2015
Dear
diary…
In
this week, my friend and I have learned about language and social class. To
make myself more understand I learn it again today. I have known that there is
correlation between someone’s social class and language that is used by
someone. Social background of someone can also be seen from dialect and accent
that is used by him. There are five social class groups. Those are Middle
Class, Lower Middle Class, Upper Working Class, Middle Working Class, and Lower
Working Class.
In Britain, there is an interesting
relationship between social class and the use of standard and non standard
speech in that the speaker of a highest social class are less likely to use
non-standard or regionally identifiable speech and they employed the dialect
that we have called stander English. It means that it is usually possible to
identify the regional background of someone, for example an upper middle class
speakers educated at public school.
Another example, in Britain done as the past tense of do is found in
both Liverpool and London among working-class speakers who might say, for
example, I done it as opposed to I did it. To recapitulate this all, we may say
that the social distance may have sort of effect as geographical distance.
It is all for today. See you in the
next week, Dear.
5th week
Friday,
April 3rd, 2015
Dear
diary…
Today
I learn about language and ethnic group. This is what I learn from internet.
There are two important points that really need to be mentioned:
1.
People
do not speak as they do because they are white or black. What happen is that
speakers acquire the linguistic characteristics of those they live in close
contact with.
2.
There
are differences between the English spoken by many whites and many blacks.
In
the cases of the first type separate identity of ethnic group is signaled not
by different languages, but different varieties of the same language. We can
suppose that ethnic group differentiation acts as barriers to the communication
of linguistic feature in the same way as other social barriers.
In
the case of the second type, it was recognized a long time ago that black
American spoke English differently from the whites. Simply it means that there
were different ethnic group language varieties.
African
American vernacular English is now one of the major pre-occupation of many
American linguists. This term is generally used to refer to the non Standard
English spoken by lower class blacks. These are some of the most frequently
cited characteristics of AAVE beginning with certain phonological feature:
1.
Many
black speakers do not have non-prevocalic /r/ in car, cart.
2.
Many
black speakers don not have /H/ as in thing or /a/ as in that.
3.
All
English speakers in their normal speech simplify final consonant clusters in
word like lost, west.
The
origin of differences between AAVE and other forms of English are grammatical
differences:
1.
Many
black speakers do not have S in a third-person singular present forms. So that
forms such as he go, it come, she like
are usual.
2.
An
important grammatical characteristic of AAVE is the absence of the verb to be
in the present tense for example: she
real nice, they out there.
3.
Perhaps
the most important characteristic of AAVE is the so-called “invariant be” for
instance: he usually be around, she be
nice and happy.
In Standard
English: He is busy right now,
sometimes he is busy.
AAVE: He busy right now, sometimes he
be busy.
See
ya...
6th week
Wednesday, April 8th, 2015
Dear
diary...
This
is what I have learn about language and sex, especially about why women and
speak different varieties of the same language.
Based
on linguistics research, it is known that the speech of men and women is
different. They use different varieties of the same language. The first one is
because the differences were believed to be the result of the missing of two
language groups. Secondly, the linguistics “the Jerspersen” has advanced
another explanation which equally reasonable. Jespersen suggests that the sex
differentiation in some cases may be the results of the phenomenon or of taboo,
which is something that is forbidden because of strong religious or social
customs. If women or uninitiated boys used these words, bad luck was believed
would come to them. Taboo has a powerful influence on the growth of separate
sex vocabularies generally. Examples, in Zulu it has been reported that a wife
was not allowed to mention the name of her father-in-law or brothers, and she
might be put to death if she broke this taboo. Thirdly, women on average use
forms which more closely approach those of the standard variety or the prestige
accent then those used by men. In other words, female speakers of English tend
to use linguistics forms which are considered to be better than male form.
It
can be noted that gender differentiation in language arises as a social
phenomenon, is closely related to social attitudes men and women that are
socially different based on behavior patterns.
See
you…
7th week
Monday, April 20th, 2015
Dear
diary…
To
improve my knowledge about sociolinguistics, I have learned about Standard and
Non Standard English for this week. This is what I got.
Standard
English started as a regional dialect that developed in the southeast of
England. It is perceived as official, is used in writing, the education system
(grammar books and dictionaries), the court, the church, in newspapers, the media
and for official purposes. It sets a certain set of rules for the English
language in terms of grammar, syntax and lexis.
Standard
and non standard English are not different languages. The main differences
appear in the use of pronouns and certain verbs forms. A user of non Standard
English for example would say:
He
did it his self instead of He did it himself
You
and her fight all the time instead
of You and she fight all the time
He
do not trust me instead
of He doesn’t trust me.
Besides
that, in Standard and Non Standard English also known there is an accent and a
dialect. There is a clear distinction between an accent and a dialect. An
accent of a speaker refers only to the pronunciation of utterances, whereas a
dialect describes the lexical use, grammar and pronunciation. For instance, a
Scottish speaker might use the ‘correct’ grammatical forms of Standard English,
but speaks it with a regional Scottish accent.
See
ya…
8th week
Friday, April 24th, 2015
Dear
diary…
Sometime, I feel confused to
distinguish an accent and a dialect. So this week, I learned the differences
between an accent and a dialect.
An accent is the way
that particular person or group of people sound. It’s the way
somebody pronounces words, the musicality of their speech, while a dialect describes both a person’s accent and the
grammatical features of the way that person talks. In linguistics, an
accent depends mostly on pronunciation of specific words or phrases. An
accent is the manner in which different people pronounce words differently from
each other. Accents differ depending on a particular individual, location, or
nation. The accent can also help identify the locality, region, the
socio-economic statues, the ethnicity, caste and/or social class of the
speaker. All these factors affect the accent of a person. Diversity also plays
a huge part in shaping different accents. Accents usually differ in the quality
of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody. For
example, the word ‘route’ is pronounced as ‘roote’ in the US, while as ‘raut’
in the UK.
A dialect
refers to differences in accent, grammar and vocabulary among different
versions of a language. For example, depending on where you live in England,
one type of baked goods could be called buns, cobs or rolls. It is likely that
when you speak in the dialect of a particular region, you will also speak in
the accent of a particular region. However, incomers may speak the dialect of a
region with a different accent. This may also apply to people who have
emigrated from one country to another. They may speak a different form of a
language from those born in that country. In certain cases, a mix of two
languages is also considered as a dialect, such as Spanglish is considered as a
dialect of Spanish and English.
Dialects have differences not only
in pronunciation but also in grammar and syntax. For example, two people may
both speak English but one might say:
He did well!
Whilst the other could say:
He done well!
Sometimes, dialects are used to refer to regional languages
that are spoken in a particular place or region. Linguists believe that
dialects are usually impure in nature to some extent, due to being borrowed
mostly from the parent language.
That is all for today. See you, Dear.
9th week
Friday, May 1st, 2015
Dear
diary…
For
this week, I have learned what formal, informal and neutral language are, and about
when we should use one of them.
Formal Language
is Language of social occasion. It is used when we want to appear serious or
official and when we are in situation in which we do not know the other people
very well. For example, are in ceremonial reception with senior colleague you
talking about an important business deal and you feel very serious. Informal Language is used when you are speaking
to friends or people that you know well but that you should not use them in
written work, official letter. For example, you are in a restaurant with friend
you talking about a new fashion and feel relax. Neutral Language is neither formal nor informal. For example, when
you are in a bus station with a stranger in the street, you talk about the
weather with neutral feeling. And also “thank you” is one of many neutral
expressions in English. It can be used whenever you want to thank anyone.
In
other word, we use formal language to greet someone in authority, and informal
language to greet someone you know well. We are likely to say a formal “good
morning” to an English , but an informal to say “hello” to a friend.
There
are four things that can help us to determine whether to use formal, or
informal or neutral language. Those are where you are and when (the setting),
what you are talking about (the topic), who you are talking to (your social
relationship) and what you feel about the topic or the other person (your
psychological attitude).
I think enough for today, dear. See you…
10th week
Friday, May 15th, 2015
Dear
diary…
Today
I learned about what register in linguistics is and the differences between
register and dialect.
I
learned from internet that human beings are not static. Their thinking, choice
and behaviour vary according to need and situation. As they adapt their
behaviour according to the situation, they adapt their language. This adaption
of language according to situation, context and purpose forms a language
variety that is called ‘Register’.
Register is marked by changes in syntax, accent or phonology, vocabulary,
morphology. At some other occasions they talk technically as well as formally.
At some occasion they become yet technical and sometimes informal and
non-technical. Following is the example of all these levels of formalities:
Formal,
technical: We obtained some sodium
chloride.
Formal,
non-technical: We obtained some salt.
Informal,
technical: We got some sodium chloride.
Informal,
non-technical: We got some salt.
Differences between register and
dialect:
Register
is a language variety according to use while dialect is language variety
according to user. Register may be related to any particular profession or
situation while dialect may be related to any region or social class. Register
shows what the user of language is doing while dialect shows who the user is
and from where the user belongs. Register is a set of particular linguistic
items to be used in a particular situation while dialect is a set of linguistic
items to be used by people of particular area or class.
That
is all for today. See you, Dear.
11th week
Friday, May 22th, 2015
Dear
diary…
For
this week, I learn about what diglossia in linguistics is. This is what I have
known about diglossia.
Diglossia
is a situation where, in a given society, there are two (often) closely-related
languages, one of high prestige, which is generally used by the government and
in formal texts, and one of low prestige, which is usually the spoken
vernacular tongue.
High (H) and Low (L) Varieties
People
learn the low variety (L) as a native language; in diglossic cultures, it is
the language of home, the family, the streets and marketplaces, friendship, and
solidarity. By contrast, the high variety (H) is spoken by few or none as a
first language. It must be taught in school. The high variety (H) is used for
public speaking, formal lectures and higher education, television broadcasts,
and writing. (Often the low variety (H) has no written form.)
Most
reasonably well-educated people in diglossic communities can deliver the rules
of H grammar, but not the rules for L. On the other hand, they unconsciously
apply the grammatical rules of L in their normal speech with near perfection,
whereas the corresponding ability in H is limited. In many diglossic
communities, if speakers are asked, they will tell you L has no grammar, and
that L speech is the result of the failure to follow the rules of H grammar.
See
ya….
12th week
Friday, May 29th, 2015
Dear
diary…
This
is the 10th week for me to learn linguistics. I have learned about
the differences between code-switching and borrowing or mixing language this
morning. This is what I have learned,
Code switching
occurs when a person switches back and forth between two languages in the same
sentence, using both with fluency. The person is using not just vocabulary but
also grammar and syntax from both languages. It means that the speaker is
actively using both languages. The speaker is, in effect, thinking bilingually,
and using all the available language skills for self-expression. In common, a
person chooses a language which the other person can understand. In
multilingualism community, people usually use different languages in different
circumstances and control the choice according to the social rules. This code
is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group
boundaries; to create, suggest or change interpersonal relations with their
rights and obligations. Some also say that code switching occur in purpose, for
example when an English teacher is teaching, sometimes he uses Indonesian to
emphasize what he actually means.
Mixing or borrowing mean
using one primary language, but mixing in words or ideas from another. In
borrowing, the person speaks one language, and adapts vocabulary from another
to fit the primary language. Code mixing occurs when a fluent-bilingual
changes. Language without any change in situation while speaking to another
fluent bilingual for the correct effect, this kind of alternation is called
code-mixing. The purpose of code-mixing is to symbolize ambiguous situation for
which neither language an on it’s would be quite right, to get the right
effect. Some also say code mixing occurs out of purpose, for example when a
girl talks to her teacher in the school, she sometimes mixes up Indonesian with
Javanese.
See
yaa…
13th week
Sunday, May 31st, 2015
Dear
diary…
A
week before I have learned about code switching but for this week I learn
special about the reasons why people code switching.
The
first why people code switching is their
lizard brains take over. The most common examples of code-switching were
completely inadvertent; folks would slip into a different language or accent
without even realizing it or intending to do it. The second is they want to fit in means very often,
people code-switch — both consciously and unconsciously — to act or talk more
like those around them. The third is they
want to get something. A lot of folks code-switch not just to fit in, but
to actively ingratiate themselves to others. They cannot tell you how many
dozens of stories they got from people who work in service industries who said
that a Southern accent is a surefire way to get better tips and more
sympathetic customers. Apparently everyone who works in a restaurant picks up
"y'all" immediately upon arriving at their job. If you can pull off the
right accent in the right context, you can get all kinds of favors. The fourth
is they want to say something in secret.
They collected many sweet stories of people code-switching in order to hide in
plain sight, a habit most common among people in love. Because this tactic
often relies on assumptions, it can get one in trouble. And the last is it helps them convey a thought. Certain
concepts need that perfect bon mot to come across effectively. Many people
switch languages or employ colloquialisms to express particular ideas.
One
note for code switching is no matter your race, ethnicity, class or cultural
background, you probably do it.
See
you, dear…
14th week
Friday, June 5th, 2015
Dear diary…
Today I learn about
what pidgin and creole are. This is what I learn from internet.
A
pidgin arises when speakers of two different languages
encounter one another and have a need for limited communications. The pidgin
incorporates words from both source languages and has a simplified grammatical
structure, just enough to allow some communication. For example Brits in India or other colonies to make
communication possible the English language used to communicate got simplified.
Pidgins are not the native language of any speech community,
but are instead learned as second languages and typically a mixture of both
languages that come into contact. A creole is basically a pidgin that got
nativized. So for example when kids dwelling where the pidgin was used start to
use the pidgin as the first language it is classed as creole. When pidgins
creolize, however, they develop fully-formed and stable grammar structures,
usually as a result of the pidgin being natively learned by children. The
vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language (called the
"lexifier"). The early "pre-pidgin" is quite restricted in
use and variable in structure. But the later "stable pidgin" develops
its own grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier.
Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language
and used for communication among people who speak different languages. Examples
are Nigerian Pidgin
and Bislama (spoken in Vanuatu).
When children start
learning a pidgin
as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is
called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is
a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another
language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin,
however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any
other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican Creole
and Hawaii Creole English.
That is all. See you…
15th week
Sunday, June 14th, 2015
Dear
diary…
In
this week I learn how geography affects language. This is the result.
Geography
has a huge impact on language. Geography influences weather and both geography
and weather influence vocabulary. There's the famous rumor of Icelandic having
over 100 words for snow (though according to this article they have only 46,
while Greenlanders have almost 60).
We
also know one of the most important matters in articulation of speech is the
climate which lubricate production of language and so the phonology of the
people is influenced by the climate, it means it is relates to the curtain area
where they live. For example, people who live next to the sea because of the
moist in the air are talking with front part of their speech organs like lips,
teeth and tip of their tongue. But people who live in an arid desert, as the
weather is dry, they try to use the organs which are wet for example mid of
their tongue and velar part. So moisture that is contained in the air is very
important for the language and it affects the phonology and dialect of
different area under certain language.
There
are also similarities in language between two or more countries (regions) that
are in the same geography. For example Italian, French and Spanish are all
going to resemble each other because they are all Romance languages descendant
from Latin. However, Romanian (Romance), Bulgarian (Slavic) and Albanian (no
linguistic neighbors in IE) and even modern Greek also share a number of
similarities by virtue of being all packed in closely together on the Balkan
peninsula. This happens because languages near each other share and borrow lots
of linguistic features from each other, much like they will trade goods and
cultural artifacts.
See
you…
16th week
Friday, June 20th, 2015
Dear
diary. This in the class, my friends and I have thought about language change.
Today I learn more about it from internet. This is what I learn,
Language
change is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological,
semantic, syntactic, and other features. There are six the causes of language
change. Those are economy, analogy, language contact, the medium of
communication, cultural environment, and migration or movement. Economy means
speakers tend to make their utterances as efficient and effective as possible
to reach communicative goals. Analogy means reducing word forms by likening
different forms of the word to the root. Language contact means borrowing of
words and constructions from foreign languages. Cultural environment means
groups of speakers will reflect new places, situations, and objects in their
language, whether they encounter different people there or not. And
Migration/Movement means speakers will change and create languages, such as
pidgins and creoles.
There
are five types of language change. Those are:
1.
Lexical changes
2.
Phonetic and phonological changes
3.
Spelling changes
4.
Semantic changes
5. Syntactic
changes
That
is all for today. See you, dear…
REFERENCES
